INTRODUCTION PRECURSORS MOVEMENTS AND PIONEERS.
called post-Romanticism movement corresponds to a period of great turmoil in all areas of European cultural and artistic. The great operas of Wagner, especially from Tristan and Isolde (1865), open up new possibilities of expression with the use of chromaticism and the expansion of tonality. It is primarily the composers influenced strongly by the music of Wagner referred to the label of post-Romantic, as they are creating works under the canons of romanticism in an era in which live many cultural and artistic events for innovative, such as impressionism, futurism, expressionism, etc.. The freedom of writing is evident in the new treatment of the melody and harmony in the works of Debussy, the sensuality of colorful orchestral ballet music of Stravinsky and in the process of disintegration, first of tonality and, subsequently, melody, harmony and texture that starts from Schoenberg to the second decade of the twentieth century. However, conservative music Plus, the taste of large sections of the aristocracy and bourgeoisie, farmers still have their songwriters as the Strauss family. They, along with Brahms, Mahler and Schoenberg, Vienna still make a major musical centers, while Paris has a high concentration of musicians, among which can mention Debussy, Massenet and Stravinsky.
To understand the music of the twentieth century, it is important that we come first to the nineteenth century, and especially a stream called Impressionism. Impressionism was born as a revolution and the artists will express the world as they see and not guided by the conventions and customs of the time. Is a real release.
are going to fight for a more individual and personal music, going out for that of the standards.
impressionistic music is intended to highlight the impact that causes the work to be heard. To this end, the melody is going to be somewhat fragmented and "hidden", will evoke the essence, creating a sound atmosphere, rather vague.
is equally remarkable break with the traditional harmonies. Apply new chords, colors and sounds. Use of unconventional scales, such as whole-tone, acoustic scale, pentatonic, etc ...
In this music, the sound will be the soul of music. The independent and non-personality sounds are going to superimpose each other creating different effects and colors.
The most important musician of this movement was Claude Debussy (1862 - 1918). Completely new ideas generated in the form, orchestration, and a refined use of sound and timbre. It was one of the most effective and relevant innovators in the history of music in the Western world.
His work is quite different, uses a new harmony for its time. Gives a completely new role to the piano, which sought to effect resonant timbre and sound really new to it using a set of essential and unique pedal. The innovations to the piano did not fall into oblivion, being a guide and model for later composers. In its piano works are various forms (ballads, arabesques, suites, preludes, images ...)
Debussy was no less in terms of orchestra. The Prélude ál'après - midi d'un faune departed from the classic Facing to exposure and development, to offer a kind of improvisational form produced from a single subject. The melody will be played several times by the flute, with a great sense of color and certain oriental air, creating an air of fantasy and blur. It is also an important note harmonic richness.
The beginning of the prelude for piano "The Submerged Cathedral" ( Le chatédrale Engloutie , 1910. Book I, Prelude No. 10), is a good example of impressionistic piano music. Given that this is a real melody, this does not begin until bar 7, where there is an almost imperceptible outside the complex overtones reminiscent of the beginning, after they have been reduced to an E and its octave. This passage also illustrates some of the features of the new tonal harmonic language. No apparent change in the first introductory bars are combined, seven white notes to form a static harmonic field in which sound totally free combinations. The fifth open that appears in the first part first time, combines with a series of parallel chords (which are both open fifths and fourths) that ascend through a pentatonic scale, the notes, stacked by the sustaining pedal (indicated by ligation ) form a complex harmonic mass, even dissonant according to traditional methods, is treated as a fused line. Alexander Nikolaevich Scriabin
(1872-1915) was a Russian composer and pianist. Between 1882 and 1892 he studied at the Moscow Conservatory, and began after a brilliant career as a pianist, but only performed his own works. Toured Russia, Switzerland, France and the Netherlands Netherlands. He also taught the Moscow Conservatory from 1898 to 1903, then lived abroad, first in Switzerland and then Belgium, where he devoted himself mainly to composition, but not stopped giving concerts, leading to a tour of the United States America between 1906 and 1907. In 1910 he returned to Moscow and spent his last years of life to the development of a work that brought together music, poetry, dance, the play of light and perfume.
His beginnings were influenced by Chopin, the period piano works belong to the op. 29, the first two Symphonies and Piano Concerto . But his search for a static expression and contemplative, which corresponds to a religious and mystical art, was isolating the music of his contemporaries composed Sonata then the fourth and third Symphony. From 1907 premium meisánica idea of \u200b\u200bthe redemptive role of music and thus arise Poem of Ecstasy from impressive orchestration, and the last six Sonatas and Prometheus. He invented the chord Prometheus (FA # SI DO RE MI b).
Erik Satie (1866 - 1925) received his first music lessons from a disciple of Niedermeyer and From 1879, he entered the Paris Conservatoire where he studied Decombe, Taudou and Mathias. In 1891 he wrote three important works: Sarabandes , Gymnopédies and Gnossiennes . At this time he met Debussy, who was joined by close friendship. Between 1891 and 1895 he composed music to texts from Peladan mystical, Mazel, Bois and Contamine de Latour. Between 1895 and 1905 he wrote for cabaret. Those years, production fell to Trois Morceaux en forme of poire (1903), which is a small anthology of cabaret music in which some fragments included Gnossiennes and froides Pieces (1897). Between 1905 and 1915 he studied with d'Indy, Roussel and the Schola Cantorum Serieyx; during those years, production was low. Composed in just three years most of his works, among others, all the pieces "humorous" for piano. In the decade 1915-1925 met the popularity and became a symbol of the cutting edge and the top representative of the group of "Six" and "School of Arcueil." During these years he composed the ballet Parade (1917) and Socrates (1919), among other works. In 1920 he began studying flight. Many contemporary writers of his time, he was accused of having no technique. His works have repetitive characters, and uses few sounds, creating a completely new environment.
From the break that led to impressionism, European art scene, both in art than in music will change greatly, the difference can be summarized in a term used by historians, the disintegration of the artistic phenomenon that is If until now we had great times as baroque or romantic as all artists were part of the arts in future will not see a movement that includes them all, but that will come more to live at the same time and moreover it happens quickly. Every musician tends to create its independent art also various styles will be happening with great quickly and this greatly complicates the study of the time.
Moreover, it is not possible to draw parallels between music and art.
Other features to note are that the music to be a phenomenon that occurs in certain nations and increasingly international, composers ignore the national character to a universal art.
One of the most important figures of the twentieth century will be Igor Stravinsky (1882 - 1971). He played in his work the most varied. Investigated in all aspects of music, and made it evolve in the rhythm, sound, instrumentation, etc ...
After researching the folklore of his country, premiere on May 29, 1913 in Paris his " The Rite of Spring." This premiere was a big scandal so hectic its rhythmic and sound overwhelming. She climbed into the truck Neoclaciscismo where he tries to accommodate his music (Pulcinella, Octet) to late Baroque. Also investigated with the end of his twelve-tone musical life (Canticum sacrum).
If anything characterizes the twentieth century is the break with tonality or atonality . This rule is to create a completely different music, ignoring the rules rigeron for centuries to stick to a key. The feeling hearing is new, the sounds are released. First, the harmony is broken, then the melody and rhythm, and everything set.
The Austrian Arnold Schoenberg (1874 -1951) will be one of the forerunners of this movement, with works such as Pierrot Lunaire (1912), or Three Pieces for Piano Op 11. Schoenberg was initially self taught, and studied violin, cello and piano. He was influenced by Brahms and Wagner, and began composing works entirely tonal.
The atonal will give way to a new system invented by the twelve-tone or serial music. This system consists of composing music based on 12 sounds of the chromatic scale and arranged in series. This series will undergo three changes, called retrograde, and retrograde movement against this move otherwise. This does create a character melodic music, but rarely to the ear. The first work that Schoenberg composed this line is the Opus 23 for piano (1923) . Schoenberg will create through expressionism, which is an artistic movement in which the European man yells to society that will run into the chaos of the First World War. It is a desperate language, with which it distorts reality to express pain and anguish. This current is expressed perfectly by the table " Scream" by Charles Munch.
School Vienna, formed by Schoenberg and his disciples Alban Berg (1885 - 1935) and Anton Weber (1883 - 1945) will follow the twelve-tone system. This school is going to relate to artists and architects, bringing many ideas in common. Schoenberg painted works of great value and will invent the odd object.
The Hungarian Bela Bartok (1881 - 1945), is one of the musicians who else is going to influence the music of the twentieth century. Zoltan Kodàly toured with various countries, collecting the popular folklore. As a result, discovered the pentatonic scales and rhythms entirely novel. In his work Mikrokosmos, displays a collection of 156 works for piano pedagogical, and life in twentieth century music. In Concert strings and celesta, sublime folk elements. In short, Bartok manages to unite the modern and traditional music, creating a new language.
Neoclassicism emerged in 1920 as a reaction to Romanticism, including Impressionism and Expressionism. The anti-romantic approach breaks with the past and feels immediately familiar with the previous concepts of Romanticism, especially in the eighteenth century. In adopting new modes of interpretation, forms and genres of the Baroque and the Preclasicismo, as a suite, concert, symphony and sonata. The musicians of this movement to his compositions used the history of music with different styles (including the nineteenth century, with standard spacer, as in other cases), as well as non-European music cultures and jazz. As in the literature, the routine is to destroy both in creation and in the hearing, through the effects of distance and parody. Neoclassicism is tonal and, from the thirties, is a growing trend towards a rational system of forms and genres. The movement ends between 1950 and 1960.
While these were happening changes promoted by the Vienna School in Italy are a number of musicians who join your new music sound objects: the incorporation of noise. This current is called the future, affecting both the music as to literature and art. This movement is not important for their works, but by what they supposed. Futurism as a starting point makes noise, not sound.
Russolo and Pratella are those who believe this music, and try to orchestrate the multitudes who are hastily, factories, railway stations, the noise of war, etc. .. In 1913, giving his first concert with these works: Meeting of automobiles "and " The awakening of the city. "
The importance of this music is the fact that practically built a new element, the noise, which had not been used before. Musicians appear as Edgar Varese (1885 - 1965), which make noise starting works of great artistic value, as ionization " for thirteen percussionists, and" Desert, will lead to another concept, concrete music, born of the hands of Pierre Schaeffer on October 5, 1948 ..
parallel in France gave the Bruitismo (French bruit, noise ) part of this same premise. Highlights include the Mexican Carrillo and the Czech Alois Hába , which employs quarter tones.
1.CONTEXTO HITÓRICO-CULTURAL: Europe after World War 1
Europe is at this time and riot destroyed after the war (late 1918).
Dissolve the Austro-Hungarian empire.
Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary and Yugoslavia were reported established as independent states.
Germany was forced to cede Alsace and Lorraine to France and other countries pay in damages.
Russia was established as the world's first communist state. In this scenario
culture reorients.
In the early days of the war, some intellectuals, artists and musicians believed they could have a positive effect as it would form a new social order and adopted a compromised position but soon be disappointed.
The first reaction was the Dada art. Began to be known in 1916 and educated in Switzerland. Acted with revulsion to war and thought that the only possible art was anti-art, promoting disorder, irrationality and unsightly.
In the last years of the war emerges a new attitude that dominates the field of art in the next two decades. Its features are clarity, objectivity and order, as if they seek a consolidation. This new attitude emerged in different groups:
The first was De Stijl and arises in the Netherlands. Members include Piet Mondrian. Then comes the
Bauhans art school founded by Walter Gropius in 1919. It features artists such as Klee and Kandinsky. Proposes an approach to art, incorporating modern industrial materials and worrying about the needs of residents.
A third group are the purists, which focused on France and was conducted by the architect Le Corbusier. Gave importance to the simplicity, the use of industrial materials and the importance of these materials at the time to influence decisions regarding the design.
These three movements were observed in the visual arts but music influenced, whose characteristics were the efficiency, clarity of composition and economy of means, after a pronounced period of experimentation. Arises a desire to avoid the excesses of post-Romanticism or late Romanticism. 2.THE
NEOCLASSICISM.
In 1918 the French poet Jean Cocteau brought to light a very influential work in which he spoke of the need for a new independent French art.
This music should stay away from rich textures and search a "music everyday" simple in their structure, which could be written in a simple score and hope to have the "clarity of the children."
The first example of this type of music was characterized E. Satie, who being a minor composer was proposed as a model of the artist.
Satie's music is characterized as a lively, informal and cheerful, with repeated melodic figures, comedians in that claim the sound of a wheel, a typewriter or a revolver. His "Parade" establishes a new musical spirit. The symphonic drama "Socrates" of 1918 is considered the best music of Satie.
The most extreme example that shows his antipathy towards the composition is "furniture music," he wrote along with Milhaud in 1920. Designed to be played during the intermission of a play is an attempt to deny any kind of artistic ambition.
-SIX:
During the years of war, Satie became a musical hero of sorts for a number of French composers. Six of them became great friends and shared interests. These composers were F. Poulenc, D. Milhaud, A. Honneger, G. Aulic, G. Taillefere and L. Durey.
In 1917 began to give concerts together, but the differences in their musical visions dismantled the group.
Stravinsky and the Neo-
changes taking place in French music Stravinsky also affected, even before these changes occurred and had moved to a smaller compositional language, without great orchestrations or ornamentation.
In 1920 Stravinsky moved to Paris, where he remained for 20 years. Here there is the beginning of one of the three major periods of his work is divided. This period is called "Russian" or "neoclassical."
The music of this period is characterized not only by simplification of textures, with some Russian folk flavor, but after Stravinsky became interested in the fundamental principles of classicism, rewritten, formed the basis for their works. The idea is not to return to the past, but to revitalize the compositional ideas of the past with contemporary harmony and rhythmic.
This is when you start talking of Neoclassicism, which Stravinsky is the initiator, although its precursors were Satie and the group of six.
In Stravinsky does not become the model of classical composition specifically, is not linked to any stylistic period as it covers all periods of Western music.
3.THE tone system.
Schoenberg:
brokeWhen World War 1, Schoenberg was in a state of flux composition. His production declined due to war, since he was drafted.
However, the compositional crisis was due to skepticism about the music "intuitive" he had written to then-free methods, atonal, no systematic ... It is therefore proposed to establish stronger links with the past. Somehow tried to sort the dissonant melodies and harmony that had emerged in the music of the century XX.
Thus arises a new system after seven years of work (1916-1923): twelve-tone music. It is a way to control the freedom that his music.
basic principles of this method are as follows: each composer draws its melodic material of a single sequence chosen within the twelve notes of the chromatic scale, so-called "series." A first series adds three:
-Retrograde : reverses the sequence of notes and intervals.
-Investment: is reversed each of the original intervals.
-Investment Retrograde above is reversed (retrograde).
Any of these 4 series can be transported to start on another note. Transport conventionally indicated by Arabic numerals following the designation of the series, indicating the number of semitones appear ascending from the original. Thus, the designation PO indicates that this is the original series, P-5 states that the original is transported a 4th just ascending (or what is the same, 5 semitones), R-1 states that retrogradely transported in a ascending minor 2 nd. The four forms of the series, multiplied by twelve possible transport are a total of 48 possible versions of the original series. Normally not used all the versions on the same piece, but according to the type of work you want to write one or the other will be chosen.
Although the series determines the sequence of notes used in a work, neither states nor their records or their duration. Nor notes the readiness of the texture or form of music.
This system divided the ideas of composers into two groups: A
that, according to Stravinsky, favored the preservation of any hue and those who, like Schoenberg, adopted the twelve-tone system. This new method
exerted a strong impact in musical thinking at the time, though few composers have adopted it as a way to work.
Schoenberg continued to evolve as a composer and during his exile in America (1934 onwards) developed an interest in tonality and tonal composed some pieces.
Schoenberg The importance of the development of twentieth century music was matched only by Stravinsky. Without Schöenberg the course of contemporary music had taken a turn quite different.
4. THE INFLUENCE OF POLITICS.
4.1. Germany.
1At the end of WWII in Germany experienced a period of great change, to the monarchy and the establishment of the republic, which rejuvenated the mood of the moment, bringing with them new artistic and intellectual impulses. There was a strong rejection of the past, a romantic and a search for a simple and objective art.
Berlin was the cultural center of Germany, but art was not confined to this city but other nuclei such as Frankfurt, Baden-Baden in turn reflected an intense cultural life.
With the advent of Hitler, this picture changes a flattening of German art, along with the extermination of the Jews, eventually breaking the great cultural moment that is lived in Germany.
Many fled artistic figures of the time and cultural activity decreased considerably, so that Germany was isolated from creating new trends. Hindemith
was the first major composer who was born in Germany in the years after the war.
Frankfurt began his studies at the age of 13, his most recognized being that of a violinist. In 1915 he was appointed concert master of the Frankfurt Opera
In 1927 he was appointed professor of composition at the Music Academy of Berlin. His mastery of instruments like the clarinet, piano, violin and viola it provided the field of composition. His early compositions have a unique style of late Romanticism quite triadic chromaticism and harmony.
During the 1920 broke with these traditional roots and became one of the most radical members of the baby boomers. Two of his operas based their arguments on topics loaded with sexual content, and the music begins to resemble the group of six.
But what really matters is Hindemith's conception of the composition: its conception of music was that music was intended to be interpreted by professionals or amateurs. Music was seen as a social activity that should involve all music ciudadanos.La Hindemith took to writing associated with this idea is an easy to use music, not many aesthetic concerns. This idea was shared by other composers is summarized in the term "Gebrauchmusik" or music to use.
Hindemith devoted the final phase of 1920 and beginning of 1930 to compose pieces for non-professional musicians and amateur cultivation. Weill
The case of Kurt Weill (1900 - 1950) is, in many ways parallel to Hindemith.
In the 1930's began concerned about the social situation that dragged Germany. Decided to use his music as an agent of social change. In this sense we can speak of his music as "utilitarian" but plant the use of music in a different sense: as Hindemith aims to renew the music composing works for amateur performers, Weill music arises as a means to raise awareness this policy and make use of the opera.
His most important work in this direction was Mahagonny-Songspiel in which he was supported the important poet and playwright Bertolt Brecht.
4.2. Russia.
In Russia the October Revolution of 1917 brought an end to the tsarist empire and led to the formation of Soviet Socialist Republics.
This series of changes exerted influence on all aspects of cultural life and of course, in music.
Many musicians fled the country immediately after the outbreak of the revolution, as was the case of Stravinsky and Rachmaninov, and those who remained had to adjust to the impositions of the new government.
Lenin, chief architect of the revolution, he argued that art should be popular, accessible to everyone and that people could understand the art should in turn improve education. Therefore, in the early 1920 the government encouraged the development of music and contact with contemporary European artists.
However, there was no agreement on what kind of art was the most appropriate and emerged two schools of different composition: the Association argued that contemporary music should be further advanced musical trends and the Association of Russian music ploretariado who believed that music should be simple and without any artistic pretension.
After Lenin's death in 1924, Stalin assumed power and these associations were replaced by the Union of Soviet Composers, which was responsible for deciding what was musically acceptable. It was intended that the music tiviera political content, social, which stressed the virtues of the new company and therefore further restricted the scope of the composers who were persecuted again.
Thus, Shostakovich's opera "Lady Macbeth" was censored and internationally renowned composers such as Prokofiev, Shostakovich or Kachaturian attacked, so they had to adapt to the demands of government.
Prokofiev (1891 - 1953). He
equipped with a musical talent and began his musical studies at the age of eleven, at the same time he began writing his first works. Soon he was described by critics of "trendiness" for his musical language evolved. Compositionally
joined the neo-classicism and many of his compositions are clear references to eighteenth century style of Haydn. This style is clearly defined in his symphony "Classic" which was composed in 1917.
One year after the Russian Revolution was an internationally renowned composer and left the country with the intention of returning as soon as the political situation calmed down. First moved to the U.S., where he remained until 1922 and then settled in Paris. His contact with the West made his music developed further.
Prokofiev returned to Russia in 1936 and soon began their problems with the government of the time he called his written work abroad as undesirable as Prokofiev became more conservative and popular in his compositions.
From that time until his death, Prokofiev turned to composing works that would be accepted officially, trying to maintain their own revolutionary language.
As we have seen, Prokofiev is a clear example of the influence of politics in music.
Shostakovich (1900 - 1975).
Shostakovich's case is similar. He began his musical studies after the Russian revolution in 1919. Shostakovich conceived music as a social phenomenon and not doubted his duty to attract the maximum possible audience and the ideological function of music.
However, despite being socially committed to the State was not without problems because they disagreed with the regime about the idea of \u200b\u200bwhat music was best for the people. Therefore always on the verge of censorship.
The clearest example of censorship occurred with his opera Lady Mtesenk district Macbeth (1932). This opera was a rare success come to represent a total of 97 times after which he was censured and unexpectedly withdrawn from the stage.
A little before the performance of Lady Macbeth, Shostakovich was moving towards a compositional language simpler and therefore less compromising, as is easily seen in his 5 th Symphony. However despite this has always been under constant pressures typical of the dictatorial regime.
As we have seen, Russia and Germany the influence of totalitarian regimes in music was evident even in other countries like Italy and fascist regimes in Spain with his music and cultural life in general was affected by current politics. Never before in the time described the policy played such a decisive role in shaping the music.
5.OTHER EUROPEAN COUNTRIES.
Germany: Orff
the German composers were not forced to leave their country during the Third Reich of Hitler, they found two possibilities: either continue to write to your liking, privately, without any hope that his music came to be known by other perosonas, or adopt a properly conservative musical style, which does not offend those who were in power.
Carl Orff (1895 - 1982) was decided by the latter and developed a style simple enough to please the authorities while original.
His most famous work and where his signature style appears for the first time is the Carmina Burana (1937) is a musical arrangement of songs composed in Latin and medieval German and obscene topics.
One of the most important aspects of Orff's career is his work as early childhood educator. Developed a proprietary method, the Orff - Schulwerk (Orff method) which allows children without musical training to participate in instrumental ensembles improvising with models simple harmonic and melodic.
By developing this method, Orff is known internationally, being the only composer who, while remaining in their home country is recognized in other countries.
Poland: Szymanowski (1882 - 1937)
Poland was placed under the Russian political and cultural domination to the end of the First World War and Chopin monopolizing their musical heritage, so it offered little room for new composers.
However, there is the presence of Szymanowsky. In his early works are noted the influence of Skryabin, Wagner, Strauss and exotic musical cultures such as Arabic and Persian .. His music is often too complicated, requiring a great technique and virtuosity from the performers.
Despite his talent as a composer, Szymanowski was not well received in Poland for its European style guidance. However, after Polish independence begins to consider the distance between his work and the public, which makes it reotiente toward a more nationalistic, with which he continued until his death.
His works include the Violin Concerto No 1 (1916) , Sonata for Piano No. 3 (1917) and Stabat Mater (1926).
Spain : Falla (1876 - 1946)
During the nineteenth century English musical life was dominated by the zarzuela, although this did not stop in the twentieth century began to develop other musical forms. The trend of a more cosmopolitan musical nationalism, labor-Albeniz and Granados, had its greatest exponent in the most important composer of the first half of the twentieth century English: Falla.
Through such important works as El amor brujo, The three-cornered hat or the Altarpiece of Maese Pedro , among others, failure to English nationalism released their specific allusions and reconstituted it as a structural component and features integrated into a musical whole complex and differentiated.
Although his work is very limited due to his poor health and severely critical of his own work, Falla was very important for the English music of his time and later, similar to that of Bartok in Hungary and Sibelius in Finland.
England: Britten (1913 - 1976)
was one of the most talented English composers who emerged in the 1930's. Britten
soon developed his style, characterized by an eclecticism of course, with a very safe technique and expressive. The style of each composition seems to be made according to the demands of the particular work. Got
notable successes, particularly with opera, which include titles cone Peter Grimes (1945), The rape of Lucretia (1946), Around the screw (1954) and The death Venice (1974) among many others, but his most famous work is the phone call to young conductors. U.S.
In the United States, the years that followed the 1 st GM. witnessed the emergence of the first generation of composers born in the country. Most of these composers were born at the beginning of the century and reached musical maturity over the 1920. Although most American composers received a European music education dejaon not to give the music a strong American style.
1930 the Great Depression makes the composers begin to consider social work, and begin to make music more accessible to all audiences. It will be a major surge of popular music to jazz, which arose at the time and fragments were introduced in the more serious compositions.
Copland.
born in 1900 and is recognized as the most important American composer of his time.
started his musical studies in 1917 and soon moved to France where he studied composition with Nadia Boulanger.
Copland's early works are the direct influences of jazz, the most important Variations for piano (1930) and the Short Symphony (1933).
After the latter was restated the value of music and decided to try to get their music to more of the public, so that his compositional language was made clearer.
This trend continued, highlighting works as Salon Mexico (1936) and Appalachian Spring (1944).
Varese.
Varese, French by birth, decided in 1915 to move to America for a while, for and end up staying in that country, which acquired the nationality.
However, musically trained in Europe and when he came to America and had achieved a remarkable reputation.
Varese became interested in introducing new sounds in his compositions, so he studied and built many devices can produce sounds amazing. Called scholarships, grants and contributions to a considerable number of scientists. An example is the work Equator, where he collaborated with Maurice Martenot and heard for the first time what would later be Martenot waves.
In attempting to explore new timbres emphasized the role of percussion compositions.
Among his most important works are the Comprehensive (1925), Ionisation (1931) and Equatorial (1934).
Latin America.
As in America, the Latin American music was influenced by the European cultural tradition. It was late nineteenth sigflo begins to appear a Latin American music itself. Almost all Latin American composers began as nationalist and gradually introduced to their music the influence of European music.
Among its most important representatives are Villalobos, Chavez and Ginastera.
1. Historical context after World War 2.
The World War 2 was the culmination of a war unprecedented in the world. The development of a hitherto unknown weapons, especially aimed at the destruction, whose high point was the creation and use of the atomic bomb, and the aerial bombardment of civilian enclaves many, coupled with the internationalization of the conflict and brought racial extermination the devastating toll of over thirty million dead and Europe and other parts of the globe, totally destroyed and thousands of families with absolutely nothing and nowhere to go. Another highlight will be the creation of two international and antagonistic blocs, Soviet communism to capitalism in the U.S., culminating in a long period of continuing tension and development of nuclear weapons that will come to be known as "cold war."
This turbulent historical context will have a major impact on postwar art activity, the most immediate emigration of many important musicians from Europe to the U.S., something that had been occurring since before the war, as Stravinsky, Schoenberg, Milahud and others, which conventirá to this country in the center of Western art music. Another key feature, greatly supported the gigantic development of global communications, will be the globalization of culture-the "global village" - which, especially since the 60's, will result in a pluralistic culture and a great eclectic . Cultural and artistic movements are replaced, and overlap from one year to another, or trends emerge new and very different time and growing rapidly, as for example in the painting are Pop art, Op art, Minimalism, Conceptual Art, Earth Art, Found, Photo Realism, Expressionism, and so ad finitum. " The music is experiencing a similar development and, in the decade of the 50 predominant only two trends-serialism and indeterminacy, "the 60 emerging minimalism, textural music, ethnic, environmental, the neotonalidad, and a long and so on.
Another notable feature is dissatisfaction with the "history" by the musicians. The apparent failure of the world's expectations and the negative of the historical development of our century led them to adopt a radical break with its historical and cultural past, which also led to an alienation and discontinuity sought in the works of many composers, and the adoption of a "counterculture" alternative cultures or fruit of different sources, such as non-continental ethnic Indian music or the island of Bali. Another consequence of this spirit is the eclecticism of many compositions and approach to pop culture
At last, an important feature of cultural and musical development from the 2 nd GM will be the absence of a central or unifying aesthetic, but coexistence of many stylistic manifestations varied and even antagonistic to each other. Furthermore, the development of these cultures do not contribute to an individual developing common these and the total disconnect between them. There is no stylistic unity that characterized other periods of Western culture. 2.THE
serialism.
The postwar compositional spirit will be a great isolation between composer and audience. The musical tradition is linked to political and social failures of the past, what is sought a complete break with all the cultural assumptions that derive from or arise from it.
Neoclassicism was seen with suspicion by the new composers who saw it as a misguided attempt to reconcile the technical revolutions of the era postonal with inherited aesthetic foundations of language previous musical. It was necessary to carry out a complete break with all previous musical notions concerning how this should be composed and how it should sound. And early twentieth-century composers had failed to join the musical revolution the previous existing budgets on the structure and musical expression rather than rethink the music on the basis of new principles. According to Boulez, was due to make a consistent treatment of all musical elements, not only melodic, but also the rhythm, dynamics, textures and finally the formal, according to strict procedures and had no serial no connection with any previous musical budget. As Stockhausen says, "the principle Schenbergiano thematic series is broken ... The essential is no longer a single Gestalt (a topic or theme) chosen by the composer. Now everything is based on a sequence of melodic proportions, durations, and sounds. "
The integral serialism. Major composers.
These elements begin to appear in works such as the "Quartet for the End Times" or "Turangalila Symphony" represent and serial structures and methods, and will lead to use explicit and rigorous methods in a serial key work for serialism: the four studies of rhythm (1943), and in particular 3, called "Mode de valeurs et d'intesites", in which show three Seri prepared "precompositional" of 12 elements where each element of the string is assigned a note, an octave, a value, a dynamic and a form of attack. The notes of the 3 tone row are arranged in descending, adding to each element of a figure over which set the standard (in the 1 st, beginning with an eighth note, every element adds an eighth note, the 2 nd begins with a sixteenth and sixteenth notes are added, and the same with the 3 rd, beginning with an eighth note). The types of attack and dynamic levels are distributed freely and not in sequence "identified". This series sets the default content of the work, the elements appear fixed over it and when you see a note, it does the same duration, registration, etc ... I had in the series precompositional. Although Messiaen does not use a serial formal structure itself, to determine only the musical elements, the work represents a touchstone for other later composers like Boulez and others. Boulez
developed the procedure of the study of Messiaen to a fully integral serialism strictly, such as "AND Structures" (1952), which creates two tables of 4 elements of 12 units, which combine procedures madiante machine readable serial number tables, which fall compositional choice as the tempo, the number of exposures, recording notes, investments in the series, etc ... When the rigid scheme precompositional starts, the composer has little control over what actually may occur at any time. The radicalism of Boulez dissolves essentially all the traditional aspects of musical structure, one of its main goals, opening the way to a music in which individual details are insignificant compared to the overall effect of the work. However, the hearing of "Structures and" is, in short, pointillist and "creates an effect of irrational and fortuitous dispersion of sounds on the extension total noise spectrum "(I. Xenakis).
Another influential European composer is K. Stockhausen, who, as Boulez, seral made an approach to trying to break the different musical elements in scales separate relationships with each other and individually combined by serial operations. However, attempts to move away from Stockhausen pointillist serialism details creating a comprehensive structural framework and thus a sense of growth and steering definido.El composer, rather than creating a rhythm "additive" as Boulez does in "Structures and" takes longer segments as the basic unit and divides them to achieve individual values. Stockhausen creates well, a method based on serial operations more flexible and differentiated.
Other important composers in the serial stream were, for example., The American Milton Babbitt and Igor Stravinsky, the adoption of serialism, opening his third and final creative step-emphasizes the centrality of this trend during the decade of the 50.
3.INDETERMINACION
The uncertainty is one of the most significant musical developments occurring after WW 2, \u200b\u200band is based on the intentional use of chance in composition and / or interpretation.
In the decade of the 50 enjoyed wide acceptance a large number of composers, due to the influence of a single composer, the American John Cage. At first, Cage was influenced by Varese, interest in unconventional sounds-eg. in his pieces for prepared piano, or by the use of a musical form called "empty container", which seeks to strictly temporary structures measures that target the music and relate schematic units proportionately from each other. However, Cage and gave importance to the arbitrariness in the choice of material for the temporary structure set, so that the method of "filling" takes a clear shade improvisatory.
The idea Cage of each sound, including noise and silence "was" itself, unrelated to other, led to the conviction that music was devoid of purpose, and expressly sought to take this nonsense so indeterminacy. The composer came to believe that it should discard any human intervention in the compositional process, taking the composer "of the activities of sounds" and making it just be "themselves." Thus
Cage introduced chance operations in his compositions, such as choosing the musical structure of a piece using the navigation charts of the I Ching, throwing coins air, drawing melodic lines as the imperfections of a line of paper, etc ...
Cage came to remove their work the values \u200b\u200bof tempo, rhythm, dynamics, number of instruments, performers, etc ... so that gave his work a great freedom of execution in all aspects and exchange between a representation and another, which could vary quite.
Other American composers influenced by the uncertainty and Cage were Morton Feldman, Earlie Brown and Christian Wolff, who in his works show extreme degrees of uncertainty and abandonment of the musical figuration "normal" graphics and figurative figurations.
Cageserialists also influenced European composers like Boulez and Stockhausen, who in this way, seeing the real similarity of the two apparently conflicting trends, and the more accurate was the predetermination of the musical elements of chance casual and tended to sound. This led them to create a serial method more open and flexible, but not allowing the sounds to be "themselves" as claimed by Cage, but creating general structures remain somewhat variable.
Another aspect of the uncertainty has been the adoption of graphics and visual methods, contrary to traditional musical notation, often in search of a visual, aesthetic in itself and even provocative. Sometimes, the difficulty of these "visual puns" makes more indicative explanations of the score that it in itself.
4. INNOVATIONS IN THE FORM AND TEXTURE.
The twentieth century is the collapse of the traditional musical structure as it had developed over two centuries of common practice. The notions of melody, musical phrase concise, clear and evident, of harmony, tonal relationships based on a pattern as a structural organization of an entire network of relationships and dependent texture with Search compaction and orchestral colors and other aspects of sound reality fall collapsed in our century in search of a revolutionary new style in music creation. The total chromaticism, atonality, dissonance assimilation as valid and even tried some of the innovations are trying to dispose of the musical past with a new language estético.Sin But not until after 2 WWII when radical change performed in its entirety and at its peak with integral serialism and indeterminacy. This radical change involves the assimilation of musical elements as independent, self-contained, interchangeable, color saturation, the dispersal of records, the dispersion of the order metric in search of a new aesthetic language that is based more on relationships and individuals in search of a single sound mass, conceived the work in its more global attributes that its singularities.
These innovations in the design of the musical work from which can be highlighted:
group composition.
Pointillism the serial works, paradoxically, produced an effect more equal the more undifferentiated different musical signs were presented at every turn, led to some composers to extend the serial principle to formal categories and relations over time, changes in textural density changes in the registry, etc ... looking for individual details from a conception of "everything" a structural point of partida.Se attached importance to the broader musical segments consist of complex collections and the way in which large number of notes could be put together, rather than the ranges and individual relationships. An example is the work Groups "of Stockhausen, for three orchestras, his interest in the texture and variety of timbre, dynamics, rhythm, etc ...
Textural music
This trend is represented essentially by two composers: Penderecki, and G. K. Ligeti and part of the previous idea of \u200b\u200bthinking about music as a "whole", taking into account their wider sound attributes, with special attention to the musical texture. The first is based on the solid construction of melodic intervals segemtos color matching almost all the notes with a single, so as to obtain a homogeneous mixture of sounds adjacent to principal.A this effect is called "cluster" and is perceived these sounds that accompany the main sound as a single undifferentiated mass, with thereby achieving the effect of "noise." A work that reflects this trend is "Lamentation for the victims of Hiroshima ."
Meanwhile, Ligeti is based less on the solid performance of clusters, but in separate clusters and variables. The composer looking and unusual textures and effects and experiencing subtle changes in their internal models. An example is " Atmospheres, 1961. New
instrumental resources
A major innovation of the musical aesthetic of our century has been the acceptance and use of instrumental resources unthinkable at other times, such as sound objects, producers of sound or noise, or using tools provided in new ways.
The addition of noise as a valid as any other musical sound has allowed the incorporation into works of strange sounds and original, by the use of any material, pans, whistles, bottles and anything else, as well as sounds recorded on tape , etc ... It is also characteristic
using conventional instruments in a way in an absolutely unconventional and unusual. The examples are endless, ranging from the use of "cluster" of stringed instruments in the previous work to Penderecki the use of woodwind instruments "multiphonics, playing only the mouthpiece and many more.
In this respect, the Italian L. Berio composed a series of works for unaccompanied solo instrument, called Sequenza in which explores new possibilities of timbre and sound of instruments like piano, accordion or saxophone. Especially significant is the n º 3, for solo voice, where the singer, besides singing, laughing, yawning or crying in an exercise of true virtuosity and mastery of the human voice. Music
stochastic
Another reaction against serialism led to the creation of music based on the use of electronic computer and the incorporation of mathematical statistics at the time of making the sound work.
key composer of this current is I. Xenakis that interested but not according to both serialism as indeterminacy, joined both trends based on the "law of large numbers" of J. Bernoulli, which devised an indeterminate music in detail but, however, is directed toward a definite end. An exam. It is " Metastasis."
Other composers interested in this type of music are Ligeti, Bussotti, Kagel, etc ...
Developments in American music
This trend is mainly represented by two composers, E. Carter, R. Shapey and is based on the change in the metrical structures of the work.
On 1 is based on the concept called "metric modulation" which consists of the gradual change of tempo by constant change and transformation itself and the audio material.
Meanwhile, Shapey focuses more on the combination of independent elements that become constantly but without losing its recognition as a musical structure itself .
Although the differences on the design of the formal development of the work are evident, both share the use of extreme complexity metric maximum differentiation of the individual parts that make up the work.
5. THE NEW PLURALISM
As seen in the previous section, the 60's is the abandonment of serialism, at this stage is also known as stage-post-serialism and indeterminacy as agglutinate formal and aesthetic ideas of musical creation. From this decade and to this day, the world music scene will be marked by an extraordinary and abundant experimentation in all fields and aspects of music. Also noteworthy is the use of new cultural alternatives, like African music or other parts of the globe, and eclecticism between them and Western music.
This explosion of material available to the composer has led many to wonder: Should we go back or move on in search of new guidelines and musical realities? As we shall see, the answer is varied, although with a tendency to turn back or, at least, to leave things as they are.
Among the many and varied forms of language Music can include:
Quotes and collages. From the 60's many composers have used music for his works borrowed from other composers of all time, usually giving them a unique character and consistent with the aesthetics present and not as mere copies of this material. Sometimes they use many different sources and from many eras, creating works collages and a distinctly eclectic.
Influence of jazz and rock. Many composers have tried to merge these trends closer to the public with the "serious" music. In many cases, the work beyond the strictly musical events leading to multimedia.
Exoticism. Another trend is to use exotic eclectic ethnic sources of which are taken rhythms, melodic modes, tools, etc ... fruit often clear taste for other cultures and Eastern philosophies-especially-the citizen of today. Interconnection
and mixing of different aspects of culture such as music, theater, multimedia, opera, etc ... in a clear attempt to link culture with reality, politics or global sense of the person as a social entity and varied forms and their situations and activities.
6.VUELTA A SIMPLICITY: minimalism and new key.
One of the new trends emerging in the 60's and are more interesting and is accepted minimalism. This movement advocates a simple, clear music, very direct. Limited to use a very small material, as well as a sharp oriental influence, static tonal structure is limited to one or a few different chords and repetitive, the insistence of additive rhythms, textural consistency or the constant repetition of themes. Finally, the absolute minimalism is a reaction to the excesses of the creations of war, and an attempt to return to the clarity and simplicity of the work.
This trend was mainly in the U.S. at the hands of composers like La Monte Young, Terry Riley, Steve Reich and Philip Glass.
The eclecticism that characterized the 60 favored the interest in review of the possibilities and characteristics of traditional tonality . This led to the resurgence of classical tonality, which for some was obsolete and was not perfectly applicable. This movement shows the taste of many of the stylistic characteristics of the nineteenth century. However, we should not think that concerned only the "copy" of nineteenth-century compositional features, but rather a restructuring of the tone and language "classic" from the budget once all joined the European composers. Some composers who adhere to this trend were David Del Trecidi, Penderecki or Henze.
The search for new colors or different from the tempered tunings to have examples and case studies as microtonality , which represents the interest of some microtonal composers for the expansion of the chromatic scale, for example in quarter tones and even in smaller divisions, so-called microtonality heated, and the use of pure tuning based on natural harmonic proportions. Some composers interested in these issues have been Young and Stockhausen, and J. Easton. The assimilation of ethnic sources of other cultures has also favored the use of alternative tunings and they have given us the opportunity to hear intervallic progressions unfamiliar and surprising to the Western ear.
7.DESARROLLOS IN TECHNOLOGY: ELECTRONIC MUSIC.
Although the development of electronic music is the music itself after the 2 nd GM, found throughout history century result of rapid technological development and electronic. These background are the Telharmonium, Thaddeus Cahill, the ondes Martenot, Maurice Martenot and the theremin, Lev Termen. These new instruments brought new compositions to a new and original sounds.
The first manifestation of electronically assisted music is the music concrete. This music of the noise or natural sounds, like the futurismo.Su dating back to 1948 when the French Broadcasting Studio, P. Schaeffer offered his noise studies. In these studies, the composer creates the music specifically to record sounds from outside, from nature and transforming them through complicated techniques laboratory-varying speed, reversing the tape, etc ..., until the sounds were not "even a memory of what they were." Using these techniques, the composer wanted to denature the music, create an abstract sound world, "surreal" that, according to the spirit of war, moved away as possible from the reality and history. Soon other composers was adhered to this tendency as P. Henry, Messiaen, Varese, Boulez, etc ... and showed a lot of new studies.
created in 1952 in Darmstadt is the first study exclusive electronic music by Herbert Eismert. This music is exclusively with sounds produced electronically and part of what is called "sine tone, pure sound, without harmonics, which is physically unpleasant and equipment must be developed with very complicated. Besides recording, these studies produce electronic sounds using oscillators and noise generators. Among the earliest works are purely electronic Study I and II, where Stockhausen the composer uses a consistent additive synthesis to create sounds by combining different waves indefinitely, sounds pure, harmonic, and also created original notation to writing the work.
However, electronic music created discontent composers from the beginning and that, while allowing precise control and absolute accuracy on the work, it was poor timbre, seemed lifeless. Therefore, many composers joined concrete music and electronics to create a genre that enjoy great popularity since then until today, it still applies: the electroacoustic music. The most important postwar composers dedicated to this music as B. Maderna with "Notturno," Berio with "Visage" and a countless list.
The rapid development of technology from the 2 nd GM as a result will incorporating synthesizers and mixing of different sound sources using laboratory techniques or computer, which uses synthesized and prerecorded sounds for composing music using a computer program, resulting in music computer or cyber.
Electroacoustic music has led to combinations of elements such as live music together with live performers and tape, for example. The " Synchronism No. 1" of Davidovsky. Also created a live electronic music, creating it with speakers, etc. in the same concert hall and cabins directly transforming mixtures. This trend highlights Cage "Cartridge Music " or the works of I. Miller.
8.EPÍLOGO .
Today, the world music scene is characterized by an unprecedented cultural pluralism and the emergence of popular music and culture in everyone's daily life. Formally
tends to simplicity, eclecticism and stagnation in which the revolutionary generation of our immediate past bequeathed to us. The gulf between composer and audience is more pronounced today than ever and "serious" music seems to have distanced inevitably tastes and preferences of the public, more knowledgeable and interested in the music more popular and close, rock, pop, etc ... However, the default style of the postwar seems ruled out of the minds of younger composers and it is unlikely a change of the magnitude that is experiencing the music throughout this century and especially the decades of the 50, 60 Y70. For music to change, it seems that before the world must change again.
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